We have photographed three leopards that were previously not captured by our cameras at the Singita Kruger National Park (SKNP) concession. This is in addition to other leopards in the area. Nnzumbeni together with SKNP’s guiding team and in particular Glass Marimane did a splendid job of moving cameras to areas of leopard activities..

Yesterday while doing my rounds at SKNP I found that we captured a female leopard near the lodge. At first I thought it was one of the new individuals in the area, but it turned out to be a a female we have not captured for more than a year;  I am glad the old girl is still looking good. Incidentally, it is the first leopard that was captured when I first tried the use of camera traps about two years ago. Remember the “V” sign on her right flank? Now that the camera will not be moved from its position for the next few years, we will hopefully be able to document the duration of her land use tenure and if luck is with us, the number of cubs she’ll bear in her life time; or from this point onwards. The information gathered will be compared with data from other sections of the Kruger National Park in our quest to understand the drivers of leopard population dynamics in this ecosystem.

A quick note on the equipment’s top nemesis, the ellies: It is one elephant-sized challenge to escape them, but I’ll keep using pepper spray around the cameras. I am attaching a few clips from one of the cameras. The camera was left on video mode, and it happened to be on an elephant path. I have to admit they are amazing creatures (Dr. Alfred Kikoti will be happy to hear these words); I just wish they weren’t so playful, pushy, and inquisitive around our equipment. I’m on the verge of leaving a sign with a huge “ELEPHANTS ARE NOT ALLOWED ON THIS PATH.”

[See post to watch Flash video]

Next blog will be about plans for the year and things that happen in between.

AWF was once again invited to the WESSA/WWF Eco-Schools Limpopo Province Green Flag Award Ceremony held in Polokwane on Friday January 22nd. Just like last year it was a great honour for me to have been part of such a great event. This also means that I must have behaved very well to be given another opportunity to attend the ceremony. It is inspiring to see that there are so many people out there who take conservation to the little ones who would hopefully take the knowledge gained back to their families and who knows, perhaps they can grow up with respect for nature, which they will hopefully pass on to their children…fingers crossed!

Kids were performing poems that showed that they understood the importance of conservation and how people should play their part. Teachers brought their portfolio files and some of the posters that the students had made. Cathy Dzerefos, the Eco-Schools Limpopo Province Coordinator funded by De Beers was at her best form, beaming with pride and her eyes were twinkling with hope that all this work will not amount to nothing.

The Department of Education (Mr N. Kgophong), the Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism (Mr P. Tsheola), the Department of Water Affairs and Environment (Ms M. Molapisane), the Polokwane Municipality (Mr W. Mathumba), Lapalala Wilderness Node (Mr L. Ngobeni) and Birdlife SA (Mr J. Peu) all contributed towards making the day a special one for their schools. Awards were given to schools that had successfully integrated environment into the curriculum and had undertaken an eco-action project. Most impressive were the five schools that have been with the programme for five years and tackled the five Eco-School themes of Resource use, Local and Global Issues, Nature and Biodiversity, Community and Heritage and Healthy Living. They were presented with the International Green Flag:

Chuchekani Primary Mosesane Baloyi Primary Rethušitšwe Primary St Patrick Mathibela  Primary White Family Home School

A year behind with four themes were the schools awarded Gold namely:

Kgomoshiakwena Primary Leboho  Intermediate Leganabatho Primary Malenkwana Primary Marken  Primary Mashamba Presidential Primary Matlou Memorial Primary Mmbara Senior Primary Mopane Intermediate Motholo Lower Primary Mpepule Primary Nkidikitlana Primary Phalaborwa Primary Phulanibyihola Primary Samson Shiviti Primary Sekanekamoyi Primary Seripe Primary Titirheleni Primary

In addition 19 schools received the national Green flag for completing three themes in three years, 22 silver awards for two themes in two years and 28 bronze awards for one year and one theme.

This time Ms. Earth-SA was not there, so I sat next to Mr. Joe Peu of Birdlife South Africa; on the day that I left my leopard perfume. Representatives from the Limpopo Government were there and they delivered good speeches relating to the importance of environmental education in schools. Mr. Peu also gave a speech relating to the importance of green living and he was one of the dignitaries along with the government officials handing out awards to the best performing schools.

All in all, Eco-Schools is a wonderful initiative and I hope that it will keep on growing to involve all the schools in the province.

“Why is it that poachers kill elephants for their ivory? Can’t they just tranquilize the elephant, cut off the tusks, and let them live? They grow back, right?”

-Murphy, New York Mills, NY, U.S.A.

I have been asked this question a few times over the years. It’s an ugly question with an even uglier answer.

Fact:  An elephant’s tusks are actually its teeth, specifically, its upper incisors. Tusks are really only dentine and their composition is no different from ordinary teeth. Elephant ivory has a distinctive luster and shimmer and this has created a  global lust to make pretty things out of them. The elephant uses its tusks for digging out grasses and roots, excavating for water, removing bark from trees, clearing out brush and sometimes as weapons for fighting, among other things. Only about two-thirds of the elephant’s tusk is visible, with the remainder being lodged in tooth sockets and the cranial cavity.

Tusks are referred to by scientists as ‘alive,’ in that the inside of the tusk is a pulp cavity filled with tissue that contains blood vessels and nerves  If an elephant were to have its tusk broken off, in a worst case scenario, the pulp from the inside of the tusks (i.e. all the nerves and blood vessels) would be exposed, causing a massive infection and an eventual, extraordinarily painful death. In short: cutting off an elephant’s tusk is the same as getting a root canal with your dentist never capping off the work.

Elephants go through six sets of normal teeth in a lifetime.  Tusks are specialized teeth and elephants have only one set that continue growing throughout the elephant’s life. They are sometimes broken off as a result of natural movements, such as digging and sparring with other elephants. If a tusk is not broken off at its root, then yes- the tusk will continue to grow.

Warning: this is the part where my answer is going to get very ugly.

Poaching elephants is illegal in every country in Africa.  Poachers kill elephants rather than tranquilize them because they want to avoid arrest and tranquilizing an elephant is time-consuming,  expensive, dangerous, and requires a very specialized expertise.  Poachers are in the business of making money. When an elephant has been spotted by a poacher as a target, the elephant is killed and it is then mutilated. Because the tusks extend into the elephant’s cranial cavity, poachers hack out the tusks in order to get as much ivory as possible  This is why, when you see gruesome photos of poached elephants, much of their face and cranial area is missing.

Walking with giants: African savannah elephants roaming in Masai Mara, Kenya (Photo Credit: Craig R. Sholley)

It is not an understatement to say that poaching of elephants is barbaric. Through the implementation of AWF programs and the dedication of superb on-the-ground colleagues (such as the superstars of the Hifadhi Anti-Poaching Network and the Kilimanjaro Elephant Research and Conservation Project, both located in AWF’s Kilimanjaro Heartland) and our loyal supporters, AWF has been a leader in helping to protect these magnificent giants.

Wait! Before You Go…

I know we covered an extraordinarily important yet very grim topic today but don’t think you’re helpless in helping elephants: you are not. You can help AWF by donating to help support elephant conservation in southern Africa, give to AWF’s Elephant Conservation Research Project , help establish a wildlife corridor and of course, Adopt African Acres so you can help AWF help the elephants have as much room to roam as they need.

“Does AWF offer safaris to Africa to AWF members?”

-Sean, New York, IA, U.S.A.

Did you know that ‘safari’ is Kiswahili for ‘journey?’ Well, we absolutely have ‘journeys’ available to Africa for our members. In fact, we just announced our 2010 AWF member safari: Kenya’s Best- Height of the Great Migration.

Wildlife, such as this black rhino, may be seen on an AWF safari (Photo Credit: Mark Boulton)

Each year, AWF designs a one-of-kind trip to our Heartlands that is specially tailored for our loyal members. Last year, our members went on a fabulous 13-day trip to Tanzania (for an AWF member account of this trip, go here):

This year, we are offering our members the chance to travel with AWF to Kenya to see one of the great wonders of the natural world, The Great Migration, in which millions of zebra and wildebeest migrate north from the Serengeti to the green grasses of the Masai Mara.

Although the migration is a definite highlight, it’s not the only sight we have in store for you! On this trip, you’ll also be able to visit the Amboseli region, which is right at the mouth of the legend itself, Mt. Kilimanjaro, and home to some of the largest – and most studied – African elephant populations on the continent. You’ll also be taking a trek up to AWF’s Samburu Heartland, where you will meet up with some key AWF staffers, such as Dr. Paul Muoria, Ph.D., AWF’s Grevy’s Zebra Research Scientist, and Benson Lengalen, AWF’s African Wild Dog Researcher, as well as some local Maasai. Also, as a special treat (and this is really the pièce de résistance, folks), AWF is offering our members a special extended four-day trek to Rwanda.  A Rwandan Mountain Gorilla Expedition is a chance to see some of the world’s last remaining mountain gorillas.  For more details (and an itinerary), visit us here:

If you are unable to join us on our treks this year, please place your jealousy firmly aside and visit us on our website at to view our Safari Planner and plan for the day when you will be able to join us.  The Safari Planner will tell you all you need to know about traveling with an ethic (i.e. choosing the right kind of safari company), safari etiquette, how to take photos while on safari, the different types of trips we have available within our Heartlands and much more.

Wait! Before You Go…

Speaking of safaris, one of the best and most fun things to do (besides getting your camera n’ gear) is getting your wildlife guide! After all, what better way to get pumped up for your trip than to take a gander at all the great wildlife you’re going to see? With our handy guides, you’ll be the only person in your camp to tell the difference between a genet and a civet. Actually, you’ll probably be the only one to know what a genet or civet is. So drop on by AWF’s online store to find some of the very best guides to the wildlife you’ll see while on safari.

We would like to wish everyone a Happy New Year and very warm wishes for 2010. We apologise for slowing down in blog updates, but hopefully this year we will pick up the slack and you guys can see how we are doing regarding meeting our project goals. It is our hope that this year we will accomplish a lot and thank you all for your continued support. We hope you feel as much part of this process as we are and we will do our best to account for all your queries even though it is not always easy.

I must confess it is a great feeling to be back in the field after seven months of studying at Oxford.   After driving through the gate at Orpen and driving up to Satara I had feelings of resounding joy, like I was home. I filled my sinuses with fresh air from the outside and was about to close my eyes and get lost in the moment when I realised that I was driving. I gave up that silly, but tempting thought all together and concentrated on the road ahead. Nnzumbeni and I arrived at Singita late in the afternoon, where my carrot-seed-covered socks awaited me; they were all there, every single one of them (with the seeds). Ouch!

The following day I had meetings with Caroline Burke, the new General Manager at Singita KNP and Matthew Harding, Singita KNP’s Head Guide. The meetings went well and they said that they understood and appreciated the conservation problems that we were faced with. After that Nnzumbeni and I went in to the concession to collect cameras.   Most of the cameras were not too far from the road, so we didn’t struggle to find them.   The only difficulty was that the grass had grown around the cameras engulfing them.   Later near one of the cameras we found an extremely faint track that resembled a carnivore’s.   That was enough to ignite a debate as to which species the track belonged to.   The debate went on even though the air around us reeked of a bull elephant in musth.   The big fella must have been looking at us lesser beings discussing the soil from a distance and was just too lazy to confront us.

NAKEDI: thought it was a leopard and was already taking pictures and GPS readings. (?)

NNZUMBENI: thought it was a hyena as the track had claw marks.

COMMON SENSE: thought it was probably a porcupine.

VERDICT: It was definitely a porcupine track, end of story!

We returned the following day with someone who is competent at handling a rifle. Along the way we came across a breeding herd of elephants and I immediately thought of hiding the cameras that lay in the back seat of the research vehicle. I had a disturbing feeling that they might just approach the car and deliberately rob us of the cameras just so they can kick them around like they were soccer balls. I have a sneaky feeling that elephants enjoy kicking cameras because the world cup is coming to South Africa and soccer fever is in the air. (?) Or they are just upset that the official mascot of the FIFA World Cup is a leopard. The mascot’s name is ZAKUMI. I wonder if he would be keen to visit the Leopard Project after his work is done.

Collen Sibuyi, a promising young guide who has just completed his guiding course, but with vast field experience as he used to be a tracker, agreed to accompany us to collect the cameras that were left in dodgy parts of the concession. I’m talking about along the river banks and areas surrounded by thick foliage, the kind of places you’d wish there was a door on which to knock first before proceeding. Most of them had leopard signs in the form of tracks. Later in the afternoon we went back with Daniel Sibuyi and Andrew Mathebula (trackers) who helped us collect the rest of the cameras.

Now we are busy collating all the results that we have obtained since April. Next week we will send an update on all the results and the next steps in our leopard work (with lots of pictures). Thank you again for your valued support without which this and other AWF activities would be near impossible to achieve.

Erin, once and for all-Zebras: are they black with white stripes or white with black stripes?

–Jarrett, Atlanta, GA, U.S.A.

Ah… the Great Zebra Debate. Are they white with black stripes or vice versa? Kingdoms and friendships have fallen because of this debate, but here goes:

After doing a bit of research,  the common consensus among reputable sources is that zebras are black with white stripes. Now, before anyone who disagrees takes my head off, you should know that there is actually a bit of logic and science behind this reasoning. First, most zebras have darker skin underneath their coats. Second, fair skinned equids would not have fared well over the centuries in the unforgiving hot, arid African regions. Third, scientists believe that zebras diverged from a solid-colored equine, with the African Wild Ass (Equus africanus) being the first species to appear after this diversion followed by the Plains Zebra (Equus quagga- aka the Common Zebra).

You talkin’ to me?: the ‘darker’--and endangered--Grevy’s Zebra. © Paul Thomson

Now, I know a lot of you out there in Ask Erin! land will say, But, Erin, how can you say that zebras are black with white stripes when, if you look at the underside of a zebra’s belly, they are stark white? There are many species of animals of different colors that have light or white colored underbellies or legs that no one would claim are white. The striped pattern of zebras comes about from a genetic process called selective pigmentation. What this means is, black is the predominant, actual color pigmentation of the zebras coat and the part of the zebras coat that does not contain pigmentation (or at least very little pigmentation) appears as the white stripes and underbelly.

Zebra stripes work as a camouflage against predators and each species of zebra has a stripe pattern (or pigmentation) acquired for their habitat. For example, the Plains and Grevy’s Zebras have ‘darker’ pigmentation (i.e., thinner white stripes or larger black stripes, depending on how you look at it) in order to blend in with the African plains and savannas.  Zebras which live in areas with more rocky, mountainous locales are ‘lighter’ (i.e., wider white stripes) in appearance in order to blend in with their surroundings. There are three distinct species of zebra. The Plains zebra alone has six sub-species. Many people think all zebras are alike and most folks can’t tell a Plains zebra from a Cape Mountain zebra. It is because of this confusion (and by extension, different stripe patterns per species and sub-species), that the great zebra debate, no doubt, will rage on.

Wait! Before You Go…

Do your part and help AWF protect the magnificent zebra–adopt Leperit the zebra, a zeal of zebras or adopt an acre (or more) of land by visiting our adoption center. You can also take action by supporting AWF’s Grevy’s Zebra project.

Wobbling down what seems like an endless descent from the lofty perches of Nkuringo Ridge, the village of Kahurire in the patchwork of green hollows below looks tiny no matter how close we get to it, like a scattering of child’s playhouses neatly arranged in neighbor friendly concentric circles.  The ragged leaves of the banana trees and deep red earth of Kahurire’s paths snake through the valley like bursting capillaries, the lifeblood of this patch of farmland on the forest’s edge.

Just as we pass Kahurire and its early morning chorus of chattering children, our guide Herbert comes to a complete halt.  There is movement in the valley just west of the village – something romping through the long golden grass that flows in all directions from the wall of trees on the edge of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park.  It’s low to the ground and dense.  Herbert hands me the binoculars.  The Nkuringo gorilla group has decided on a jaunt outside of Bwindi today, and I spot Park rangers in their everyday green fatigues coaxing them back: out of the community’s bean fields and back into Bwindi’s dense sanctuary.  Today the rangers are on the spot, but when gorillas leave the forest they often encounter community members.  Here, the HUGO (Human Gorilla Conflict) team, an IGCP assisted project springs into action using their extensive training to encourage the gorillas to re-enter the forest.

When we finally reach the gullies beyond the bean fields (gorillas do not actually like the bean plants for food and leave them alone, the rangers tell me) the family has scattered, but still has time to be cheeky: the newly silvered silverback Bahati, who has graduated from blackback status the last time I saw him, still plays the rebellious teenager and starts chasing us through the rustling ferns, which have turned reddish-brown under the high country sun.   After one or two bluffs, he settles into a spot near some tasty trees and ignores us, deciding a snack is more important than making this pale ape tumble backwards down the almost vertical slopes.

Bahati, newly silverbacked, pauses for a snack.

As Bahati tucks beneath the vegetation, Kwitonda emerges on the knob above us with her two fuzzy and precious packages clinging tightly to her back: the brother and sister twins Karunge and Muhozi, who were born just over a year ago.  Gorilla twins are rare. Rarer yet is both surviving past their first year.  Muhozi and Kaurunge both look healthy to these untrained eyes, and the rangers inform me they are doing just fine.

Kwitonda emerges with brother and sister twins Karunge and Muhozi.

There is rustling all around us and we follow Kwitonda up the hill, but it is hard to spot anything in the wall of ferns and grass.  As we double around and pass above the lounging Bahati we get lucky: there is Mama Christmas with her tiny two week-old baby, which she is vigilantly sheltering under her arm beneath her breast.  My mission today was to get photos of the newborn, but I am no match for a protective mother: I can only get a few fleeting glances and blurry snaps before she whisks the fragile youngster through some dense brush and out of site.

Mama Christmas with her tiny two week-old baby.

I have to content myself with Rafiki (“Friend”), the mellow silverback with the massive head who has perched himself on another impossibly steep hill and is stuffing his mouth with leaves and young shoots, occasionally closing his eyes in a sleepy haze like a sports fan with a protruding belly on the sofa drifting into a nap after a long day of overdosing on football and food.    We keep him company during the voracious munching, and blissfully content in his food wonderland, he doesn’t stir as we retreat for the muscle taxing hike back up the ridge, which by now is sticky hot with late morning sun.

The Nkuringo family has increased from 18 to 20 members since my last visit.  They are healthy, safe and content, and their progress seems inextricably linked to that of their human neighbors in and around Nkuringo Village.  Later, I have a nice chat with Gervase Tumwebaze, the ebullient Head of the Nkuringo Community Development Foundation, the local organization partnered with IGCP and Clouds Mountain Gorilla Lodge that turns the benefits from gorilla tourism into development benefits for an increasing number of households in the area.  Gervase mentions current projects: a water extension project for a village, Nyabaremura, which had no source, pig and cow distribution which places the animals’ offspring back into the community’s needy families, school fee support for local nursing students, conservation of pocket forests outside of the National Park, development of school gardens.

Walking through the village I meet up with Simeo, who has benefited from the cow project.  He points to his cow’s young calf, which bounces around his pasture below the village.  When the calf is old enough, it will go to another local family in need, and Simeo will get to keep his cow, which will produce milk for his family and for sale, as well as additional calves.  “The benefits go to both my family and others in the area,” states Simeo, proudly showing off a living benefit of NCDF’s work that has already had a positive impact on the families of this remote mountain hamlet stashed between the impenetrable green of Bwindi Forest and the vast expanse of the Virunga Volcano chain.  It’s a rare site, and rare treat, indeed, to witness the progress of so many families, human and hairy.

- Jamie Kemsey

A big hearty HELLO!

A few weeks back, I wrote to you all about the African Wildlife Foundation’s (AWF) Charlotte Fellows Program, which is a fellowship offered specifically to African nationals seeking their full or partial Ph.D. or Master’s degrees in conservation, biological sciences (see my original post here). As you no doubt will recall, I promised that as soon as I had word I would let you all know about the newest crop of students who will make up the Charlotte Fellows class of 2009-2010. Well, guess what? The word is in!

As AWF recently expanded our work into western Africa (you’ll be hearing more on that very soon!), we specifically restricted the application process to students from West Africa. These future leaders of African wildlife conservation are as varied as any class we’ve ever seen – and just as brilliant.

The roan antelope is one of the many fabulous antelope species found in West Africa. © Shana Laursen

I present to you now the AWF Charlotte Fellows class of 2009-2010:

Etotepe A. Sogbohossou is  a lion lover from Benin who is working towards a Ph.D. in Conservation Biology at the University of Leiden in The Netherlands.

Issa Nassourou is from Niger and is pursuing a Ph.D. in Geography at the Abdou Moumouni University in Niamey, Niger.

Boubacar Boureima is also from Niger and like Issa, is currently working towards his Master’s degree in Natural Resource Management, also, at the Abdou Moumouni University in Niger. He is studying the manatees of the Niger River (Betcha didn’t even know Africa had manatees, did ya’?).

Mohamadou Habibou Gabou is from the nation of Niger (wow- Niger has really represented for this class!) and is working to earn a Master’s degree in Natural Resource Management at, you guessed it, Abdou Moumouni University in Niger.

Isidore Ogoudje Amahowe is from Benin and is  pursuing his Master’s degree in Analysis of Wildlife Populations at the Rural Development Institute, Bobo-Dioulasso University Polytechnic.

Amelie Traore Hien is from Burkina Faso and is conducting research on ecosystem degradation in the Kou sub-basin in her homeland while studying for a Master’s degree in Protected Area Management at the International Institute of Water Engineering and Environment in Ougadougou, Burkina Faso.

Congratulations to our newest class of fellows! For more information on our new fellows, please visit us on our website here.

Wait! Before You Go…
As most of you know by now, here at AWF, we believe in empowering people as much as we believe in conserving and protecting wildlife. Our Charlotte Fellows program is living proof of this belief. However, just because the application process is closed for our 2009-2010 fellows class doesn’t mean you can’t still lend a helping hand to future African conservationists. Please visit us here to lend support to our Charlotte Conservation Fellowship Program and here to buy school supplies for our youngest future conservationists: the primary students at AWF’s Manyara Ranch School in our Maasai Steppe Heartland.

“I was recently reading a wildlife book in a train station to pass some time, when I thought I saw something about flying foxes. My train got called just as I was about to read the info so I’m still wondering if there really is such a thing as a flying fox?!”

–Jacob, Chattanooga, TN, U.S.A.

Your eyes were not deceiving you: there IS such a thing as a flying fox!

Now, before anyone gets too excited (or weirded out), the flying fox (of the family Pteropodidae) isn’t what your imaginations are thinking it is: a cute, little red fox with wings or some type of folded skin that allows it to glide through the air with the greatest of ease. The flying fox is not really a fox at all- it’s a bat.

Actually, to be more precise, it’s a mega bat which is exactly what it sounds like- they are mega-big bats, the largest in the world and they are not the stereotypical bloodsuckers- flying foxes are fruit bats and are only found in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world.

This Rodrigues flying fox is native to Mauritius. © Martin Werker

There are approximately 173 species of flying fox in the world. The flying fox pictured above is a Rodrigues flying fox (Pteropus rodricensus), and is native to the island of Rodrigues (hence its name), an island of Mauritius. As a native islander, the Rodrigues flying fox is quite sociable and lives in large, patriarchal groups (with a dominant male at the helm) with several females and their offspring. Like all fruit bats, our guy loves…fruit! Particular favorites are tamarinds, rose-apples, mangoes, palms and figs. It can reach up to1lbs. in weight and has a wingspan of approximately 35 inches. And our guy isn’t even the largest of the mega bat species: some mega bats can reach close to 3 lbs. in weight with wingspans of more than 5 feet!

Flying foxes get their misnomer due to the species’ overall appearance: their tuft of fur, large eyes and pointy ears give their faces a similar appearance to a small fox and since they have wings…well, you can figure out the rest.

Like many species in Africa loss of habitat is a main threat to population numbers. Since the Rodrigues flying fox is endemic to only one island in the world, its population is completely at the mercy of tropical storms that blow through its island home: its population took a huge hit in 1979 due to damage from Cyclone Celine II, which dropped the population from a few hundred to approximately 70. Thankfully, the 1980’s saw a comeback of sorts and now this fruit eatin’, pollen drinkin’, seed spittin’ critter numbers around 4,000 on its island turf.

Did You Know …

• Flying foxes are great for the environment: while eating fruit, they carry their treasured treats with them and spit out any seeds on the forest floor, thereby replanting flora as they fly about.
• Flying foxes have a great ‘green thumb’: while milling about in front of flowers, the flying fox extends its long tongue to get at the pollen inside the flower. The pollen passes onto the bat, which then pollinates the next flower it approaches for more pollen to eat.
• Many species of flying fox are threatened with extinction due to the bush meat trade: in many areas of West Africa, for example, flying fox meat is considered a delicacy.
• Flying foxes belong to an order of mammals called Chiroptera, which means ‘hard wing.’